Quantum dot devices

ABSTRACT

Quantum dot devices, and related systems and methods, are disclosed herein. In some embodiments, a quantum dot device may include a quantum well stack; a plurality of first gates above the quantum well stack; and a plurality of second gates above the quantum well stack; wherein the plurality of first gates are arranged in electrically continuous rows extending in a first direction, and the plurality of second gates are arranged in electrically continuous rows extending in a second direction perpendicular to the first direction.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No.62/417,047, titled “QUANTUM DOT DEVICES” and filed Nov. 3, 2016. Theentirety of this priority application is incorporated herein byreference.

BACKGROUND

Quantum computing refers to the field of research related to computationsystems that use quantum mechanical phenomena to manipulate data. Thesequantum mechanical phenomena, such as superposition (in which a quantumvariable can simultaneously exist in multiple different states) andentanglement (in which multiple quantum variables have related statesirrespective of the distance between them in space or time), do not haveanalogs in the world of classical computing, and thus cannot beimplemented with classical computing devices.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments will be readily understood by the following detaileddescription in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. To facilitatethis description, like reference numerals designate like structuralelements. Embodiments are illustrated by way of example, and not by wayof limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings.

FIGS. 1A-1E are various views of a quantum dot device, in accordancewith various embodiments.

FIGS. 2A-2U illustrate various example stages in the manufacture of aquantum dot device, in accordance with various embodiments.

FIG. 3 is a view of a quantum dot device, in accordance with variousembodiments.

FIGS. 4A-4D are various views of a quantum dot device, in accordancewith various embodiments.

FIGS. 5A-5C illustrate various example dimensions of a quantum dotdevice, in accordance with various embodiments.

FIGS. 6-8 illustrate various electrical configurations that may be usedto perform quantum operations on a quantum dot device, in accordancewith various embodiments.

FIG. 9 illustrates an interconnect arrangement for a quantum dot device,in accordance with various embodiments.

FIG. 10 illustrates an arrangement of magnets associated with quantumdot gates in a quantum dot device, in accordance with variousembodiments.

FIG. 11 illustrates a double-sided quantum dot device, in accordancewith various embodiments.

FIGS. 12A-12E illustrate various embodiments of a quantum well stackthat may be included in a quantum dot device, in accordance with variousembodiments.

FIGS. 13A and 13B are top views of a wafer and dies that may include anyof the quantum dot devices disclosed herein.

FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional side view of a device assembly that mayinclude any of the quantum dot devices disclosed herein.

FIG. 15 is a block diagram of an example quantum computing device thatmay include any of the quantum dot devices disclosed herein, inaccordance with various embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Quantum dot devices, and related systems and methods, are disclosedherein. In some embodiments, a quantum dot device may include a quantumwell stack; a plurality of first gates above the quantum well stack; anda plurality of second gates above the quantum well stack; wherein afirst gate is between each nearest neighbor pair of second gates. Insome embodiments, a quantum dot device may include a quantum well stack;a plurality of first gates above the quantum well stack; and a pluralityof second gates above the quantum well stack; wherein the plurality offirst gates are arranged in electrically continuous rows extending in afirst direction, and the plurality of second gates are arranged inelectrically continuous rows extending in a second directionperpendicular to the first direction. In some embodiments, a quantum dotdevice may include a quantum well stack; a plurality of first gatesabove the quantum well stack; and a plurality of second gates above thequantum well stack; wherein the plurality of second gates are arrangedas points in a grid, and diagonal subsets of the plurality of secondgates with respect to the grid are electrically continuous.

The quantum dot devices disclosed herein may enable the formation ofquantum dots to serve as quantum bits (“qubits”) in a quantum computingdevice, as well as the control of these quantum dots to perform quantumlogic operations. Unlike previous approaches to quantum dot formationand manipulation, various embodiments of the quantum dot devicesdisclosed herein provide strong spatial localization of the quantum dots(and therefore good control over quantum dot interactions andmanipulation), good scalability in the number of quantum dots includedin the device, and/or design flexibility in making electricalconnections to the quantum dot devices to integrate the quantum dotdevices in larger computing devices.

In the following detailed description, reference is made to theaccompanying drawings that form a part hereof, and in which is shown, byway of illustration, embodiments that may be practiced. It is to beunderstood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural orlogical changes may be made without departing from the scope of thepresent disclosure. Therefore, the following detailed description is notto be taken in a limiting sense.

Various operations may be described as multiple discrete actions oroperations in turn in a manner that is most helpful in understanding theclaimed subject matter. However, the order of description should not beconstrued as to imply that these operations are necessarily orderdependent. In particular, these operations may not be performed in theorder of presentation. Operations described may be performed in adifferent order from the described embodiment. Various additionaloperations may be performed, and/or described operations may be omittedin additional embodiments.

For the purposes of the present disclosure, the phrase “A and/or B”means (A), (B), or (A and B). For the purposes of the presentdisclosure, the phrase “A, B, and/or C” means (A), (B), (C), (A and B),(A and C), (B and C), or (A, B, and C). The term “between,” when usedwith reference to measurement ranges, is inclusive of the ends of themeasurement ranges. As used herein, the notation “A/B/C” means (A), (B),and/or (C).

The description uses the phrases “in an embodiment” or “in embodiments,”which may each refer to one or more of the same or differentembodiments. Furthermore, the terms “comprising,” “including,” “having,”and the like, as used with respect to embodiments of the presentdisclosure, are synonymous. The disclosure may use perspective-baseddescriptions such as “above,” “below,” “top,” “bottom,” and “side”; suchdescriptions are used to facilitate the discussion and are not intendedto restrict the application of disclosed embodiments. The accompanyingdrawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. As used herein, a “high-kdielectric” refers to a material having a higher dielectric constantthan silicon oxide.

The disclosure may use the singular term “layer,” but the term “layer”should be understood to refer to assemblies that may include multipledifferent material layers. The accompanying drawings are not necessarilydrawn to scale. For ease of discussion, all of the lettered sub-figuresassociated with a particular numbered figure may be referred to by thenumber of that figure; for example, FIGS. 1A-1E may be referred to as“FIG. 1,” FIGS. 2A-2C may be referred to as “FIG. 2,” etc.

FIGS. 1A-1E are various views of a quantum dot device 100, in accordancewith various embodiments. FIG. 1A is a top view of a portion of thequantum dot device 100 with some of the materials removed so that thequantum dot (QD) gate lines and barrier gate lines 104 are visible.Although many of the drawings and description herein may refer to aparticular set of lines or gates as “barrier” or “quantum dot” lines orgates, respectively, this is simply for ease of discussion, and in otherembodiments, the role of “barrier” and “quantum dot” lines and gates maybe switched (e.g., barrier gates may instead act as quantum dot gates,and vice versa). FIGS. 1B-1E are side cross-sectional views of a quantumdot device 100; in particular, FIG. 1B is a view through the section B-Bof FIG. 1A, FIG. 1C is a view through the section C-C of FIG. 1A, FIG.1D is a view through the section D-D of FIG. 1A, and FIG. 1E is a viewthrough the section E-E of FIG. 1A.

As used herein, during operation of the quantum dot device 100,electrical signals (e.g., voltages, radio frequency (RF), and/ormicrowave signals) may be provided to a quantum dot gate (andneighboring gates) to cause a quantum dot (e.g., an electron spin-basedquantum dot) to form in a quantum well stack 146 under the quantum dotgate. Electrical signals (e.g., voltages, radio frequency (RF), and/ormicrowave signals) may be provided to a barrier gate to control thepotential energy barrier between adjacent quantum dots.

In the quantum dot device 100 of FIG. 1, a gate dielectric 114 isdisposed on a quantum well stack 146. A quantum well stack 146 mayinclude at least one quantum well layer 152 (not shown in FIG. 1, butdiscussed below) in which quantum dots may be localized during operationof the quantum dot device 100; examples of quantum well stacks 146 arediscussed below with reference to FIG. 12. The gate dielectric 114 maybe any suitable material, such as a high-k material. Multiple parallellines of barrier gate metal 108 are disposed on the gate dielectric 114,and spacer material 118 is disposed on side faces of the barrier gatemetal 108. In some embodiments, a patterned hardmask 110 may be disposedon the barrier gate metal 108 (with the pattern corresponding to thepattern of the barrier gate metal 108), and the spacer material 118 mayextend up the sides of the hardmask 110, as shown. In some embodiments,an additional hardmask 112 may be disposed on the hardmask 110 (suchthat there are two hardmasks above the barrier gate metal 108), and thisadditional hardmask 112 may be patterned as illustrated in FIG. 1D toextend over adjacent pairs of barrier gate metal 108 segments. As shownin FIGS. 1B and 1D, in some embodiments, additional insulating material128 (e.g., an interlayer dielectric (ILD)) may be disposed on thisadditional hardmask 112. In some embodiments, insulating material 128(e.g., an ILD) may be disposed between the two hardmasks 110 and 112.The barrier gate metal 108 may provide barrier gates during operation ofthe quantum dot device 100, as discussed below. Different ones of thebarrier gate lines 104 may be separately electrically controlled.

Multiple parallel lines of quantum dot (QD) gate metal may be disposedover the multiple parallel lines of barrier gate metal 108. Asillustrated in FIG. 1A, the lines of quantum dot gate metal 106 may bearranged perpendicular to the lines of barrier gate metal 108. Asillustrated in FIG. 1D, the area between adjacent pairs of barrier gatemetal 108/spacer material 118 structures may be alternatingly filledwith an insulating material 128 (e.g., an ILD) and the quantum dot gatemetal 106. The quantum dot gate metal 106 may extend over the additionalhardmask 112 and additional insulating material 128 above the barriergate metal 108, and may extend down into the space between adjacent onesof the barrier gate metal 108/spacer material 118 structures. Thequantum dot gate metal 106 that extends between adjacent ones of thebarrier gate metal 108/spacer material 118 structures may provide aquantum dot gate 150 during operation of the quantum dot device 100 suchthat quantum dots form in the quantum well stack 146 below the quantumdot gates 150, as discussed below. The quantum dot gates 150 mayalternate with stubs 122 that do not extend as far toward the quantumwell stack 146, as shown. Multiple ones of the quantum dot gates 150 ina quantum dot gate line 102 are electrically continuous due to thecontinuous quantum dot gate metal 106 over the barrier gates 160;different ones of the quantum dot gate lines 102 may be separatelyelectrically controlled. As illustrated in FIGS. 1B and 1C, upperportions of the quantum dot gate lines 102 may have spacer material 118disposed on the top and side faces. Different portions of the quantumdot gate metal 106 may also have gate dielectric 114 disposed on thebottom and side faces, as shown.

Although FIG. 1 illustrates a particular number of quantum dot gatelines 102 and barrier gate lines 104, this is simply for illustrativepurposes, and any number of quantum dot gate lines 102 and barrier gatelines 104 may be included in a quantum dot device 100. Other examples ofquantum dot gate line 102 and barrier gate line 104 arrangements arediscussed below with reference to FIGS. 3, 4, and 6-8. Electricalinterconnects (e.g., vias and conductive lines) may make contact withthe quantum dot gate lines 102 and barrier gate lines 104 in any desiredmanner; some example arrangements are discussed below with reference toFIG. 9. Examples of methods of performing quantum operations with thequantum dot device 100 of FIG. 1 (or similar devices) are discussedbelow with reference to FIGS. 6-8.

Not illustrated in FIG. 1, but illustrated in FIG. 4, are accumulationregions 162 that may be electrically coupled to the quantum well layerof the quantum well stack 146. The accumulation regions 162 may beregions in which carriers accumulate (e.g., due to doping, or due to thepresence of large electrodes that pull carriers into the quantum welllayer), and may serve as reservoirs of carriers that can be selectivelydrawn into the areas of the quantum well layer under the quantum dotgates (e.g., by controlling the voltages on the quantum dot gates andthe barrier gates 160) to form carrier-based quantum dots (e.g.,electron or hole quantum dots). In other embodiments (e.g., as discussedbelow with reference to FIG. 12), a quantum dot device 100 may notinclude lateral accumulation regions 162, but may instead include dopedlayers within the quantum well stack 146. These doped layers may providethe carriers to the quantum well layer. Any combination of accumulationregions 162 (e.g., doped or non-doped) or doped layers in a quantum wellstack 146 may be used in any of the embodiments of the quantum dotdevices 100 disclosed herein.

FIGS. 2A-2U illustrate various example stages in the manufacture of aquantum dot device 100, in accordance with various embodiments. Theviews illustrated in FIGS. 2A-2H are taken along the cross section ofFIG. 1D, the view illustrated in FIG. 21 is a top view similar to thetop view of FIG. 1A, and the views illustrated in FIGS. 2J-2U are takenalong the cross section of FIG. 1C.

FIG. 2A illustrates an assembly including a quantum well stack 146, agate dielectric 114 disposed on the quantum well stack 146, a barriergate metal 108 disposed on the gate dielectric 114, a hardmask 110disposed on the barrier gate metal 108, a template material 132 disposedon the hardmask 110, and a patterned photoresist 130 disposed on thetemplate material 132. The photoresist 130 may be any suitable material,and may be patterned using any suitable technique. In some embodiments,the template material 132 may be amorphous silicon, or any othersuitable material.

FIG. 2B illustrates an assembly subsequent to patterning the templatematerial 132 of the assembly of FIG. 2A in accordance with the patternof the photoresist 130, then removing the photoresist 130. Any suitableetch process may be used to pattern the template material 132.

FIG. 2C illustrates an assembly subsequent to providing spacer material134 on side faces of the patterned template material 132 of the assemblyof FIG. 2B. The spacer material 134 of FIG. 2C may be formed bydepositing a conformal layer of the spacer material 134 over thepatterned template material 132, then performing a directional etch toetch the spacer material 134 “downward,” leaving the spacer material 134on the sides of the patterned template material 132. The spacer material134 may be an insulating material, for example.

FIG. 2D illustrates an assembly subsequent to removing the templatematerial 132 from the assembly of FIG. 2C. The template material 132 maybe removed using any suitable etch process.

FIG. 2E illustrates an assembly subsequent to etching the hardmask 110and the barrier gate metal 108 of the assembly of FIG. 2D in accordancewith the pattern provided by the spacer material 134 (i.e., the hardmask110 and barrier gate metal 108 not masked by the spacer material 134 maybe removed). Any suitable etch process may be used to pattern thehardmask 110 and the barrier gate metal 108. In some embodiments, asshown, the etch may stop at the gate dielectric 114, while in otherembodiments, the etch may continue through the gate dielectric 114.

FIG. 2F illustrates an assembly subsequent to removing the spacermaterial 134 of the assembly of FIG. 2E. Any suitable technique may beused.

FIG. 2G illustrates an assembly subsequent to providing spacer material118 on side faces of the patterned hardmask 110 and barrier gate metal108 of the assembly of FIG. 2F. The spacer material 118 of FIG. 2G maybe formed using the techniques discussed above with reference to FIG.2C, for example.

FIG. 2H illustrates an assembly subsequent to providing an insulatingmaterial 128 on the assembly of FIG. 2G. The insulating material 128 maybe, for example, an ILD. In some embodiments, the insulating material128 may fill the area above the gate dielectric 114 between adjacentportions of spacer material 118 and extend over the hardmask 110, asshown. In some embodiments, the insulating material 128 may beplanarized after deposition (e.g., using a chemical mechanical polishing(CMP) technique). FIG. 21 is a “top” view of the assembly of FIG. 2H,with some of the insulating material 128 removed to show the barriergate lines 104.

FIG. 2J is a cross-sectional view through the dashed line of FIG. 2I,subsequent to providing an additional hardmask 112 on the insulatingmaterial 128 of FIG. 2I, as well as providing additional insulatingmaterial 128, template material 136, and a patterned photoresist 138.The additional insulating material 128 may take the form of any of theinsulating materials 128 discussed above with reference to FIG. 2H. Theadditional hardmask 112 may take the form of any of the hardmasksdiscussed above with reference to FIG. 2A. The template material 136 andpatterned photoresist 138 may take the form of any of the templatematerials and patterned photoresists, respectively, discussed above withreference to FIG. 2A.

FIG. 2K illustrates an assembly subsequent to patterning the templatematerial 136 of the assembly of FIG. 2J in accordance with the patternof the photoresist 138, then removing the photoresist 138. Any suitableetch process may be used to pattern the template material 136.

FIG. 2L illustrates an assembly subsequent to providing spacer material140 on side faces of the patterned template material 136 of the assemblyof FIG. 2K. The spacer material 140 of FIG. 2L may be formed using thetechniques discussed above with reference to FIG. 2C, for example.

FIG. 2M illustrates an assembly subsequent to removing the templatematerial 136 from the assembly of FIG. 2L. The template material 136 maybe removed using any suitable etch process.

FIG. 2N illustrates an assembly subsequent to depositing additionaltemplate material 144 on the assembly of FIG. 2M, planarizing thatadditional template material 144, and depositing additional photoresist148 on the additional template material 144. The additional photoresist148 may be deposited using any suitable technique, such as spin coating.

FIG. 2O illustrates an assembly subsequent to forming openings in thephotoresist 148 of the assembly of FIG. 2N to expose alternatingportions of the additional template material 144, as shown. The openingsmay be formed using via lithography, or any other suitable process, andmay have a circular cross section when viewed from above.

FIG. 2P illustrates an assembly subsequent to etching the additionaltemplate material 144, the insulating material 128, the gate dielectric114, and the additional hardmask 112 in accordance with the patternprovided by the patterned photoresist 148 and spacer material 140 (i.e.,the additional template material 144, the insulating material 128, thegate dielectric 114, and the additional hardmask 112 not masked by thephotoresist 148 or the spacer material 140 may be removed). Any suitableetch process may be used to pattern the additional template material144, the additional hardmask 112, the gate dielectric 114, and theinsulating material 128. In some embodiments, as shown, the etch maycontinue through the gate dielectric 114, while in other embodiments,the etch may stop without removing any of the gate dielectric 114.

FIG. 2Q illustrates an assembly subsequent to removing the photoresist148 and the additional template material 144 of the assembly of FIG. 2P.Any suitable technique may be used.

FIG. 2R illustrates an assembly subsequent to depositing a conformalgate dielectric 114 over the assembly of FIG. 2Q followed by thedeposition and planarization of the quantum dot gate metal 106 (e.g., byCMP). The assembly of FIG. 2R thus includes alternating stubs 122 (whichmay not provide gate functionality during operation) and quantum dotgates 150 (which extend closer to the quantum well stack 146, and thusmay provide gate functionality during operation).

FIG. 2S illustrates an assembly subsequent to removing the spacermaterial 140 of the assembly of FIG. 2R. Any suitable technique may beused.

FIG. 2T illustrates an assembly subsequent to providing spacer material118 on the assembly of FIG. 2S. In some embodiments, the spacer material118 may be conformal, and may be directionally etched as discussedpreviously. In some embodiments, some of the spacer material 118 mayremain on “top” of the quantum dot gate metal 106, as well as on theside faces of the quantum dot gate metal 106.

FIG. 2U illustrates an assembly subsequent to providing an insulatingmaterial 128 on the assembly of FIG. 2T. The insulating material 128 maybe, for example, an ILD. In some embodiments, the insulating material128 may fill the area above the insulating material 128 between adjacentportions of spacer material 118. In some embodiments, the insulatingmaterial 128 may be planarized after deposition (e.g., using CMP). Theassembly of FIG. 2U may take the form of the quantum dot device 100illustrated in FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is a view of a quantum dot device 100, in accordance with variousembodiments. In particular, FIG. 3 schematically illustrates a quantumdot device 100 having a two-dimensional arrangement of barrier gates 160and quantum dot gates 150. In some embodiments, the quantum dot device100 schematically illustrated in FIG. 3 may take the form of any of thequantum dot devices 100 discussed above with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2.In such embodiments, multiple ones of the barrier gates 160 illustratedin FIG. 3 as connected by a barrier gate line 104 may physically takethe form of a single elongated barrier gate, as discussed above withreference to FIG. 3, while multiple ones of the quantum dot gates 150illustrated in FIG. 3 as connected by a quantum dot gate line 102 maytake the form of an electrically continuous structure having alternatingquantum dot gates 150 and stubs 122, as discussed above.

In FIG. 3, barrier gates 160 arranged along a barrier gate line 104 areelectrically continuous, and thus any voltage applied to a barrier gateline 104 will be applied to all of the barrier gates 160 along thatline. Similarly, quantum dot gates 150 arranged along a quantum dot gateline 102 are electrically continuous, and thus any voltage applied to aquantum dot gate line 102 will be applied to all of the quantum dotgates 150 along that line. In the quantum dot device 100 of FIG. 3, thebarrier gate lines 104 are parallel to each other, the quantum dot gatelines 102 are parallel to each other, and the barrier gate lines 104 areperpendicular to the quantum dot gate lines 102.

The quantum dot gates 150 in the quantum dot device 100 of FIG. 3 (andthe quantum dot devices 100 of FIGS. 1 and 4-9) are arranged as pointsin a grid, and different ones of the quantum dot gate lines 102 areelectrically coupled to different diagonals in that grid. The barriergates 160 in the quantum dot device 100 of FIG. 3 (and the quantum dotdevices 100 of FIGS. 1 and 4-9) are arranged as points in a grid, anddifferent ones of the barrier gate lines 104 are electrically coupled todifferent rows in that grid. The grid underlying the quantum dot gates150 is rotated 45 degrees with reference to the grid underlying thebarrier gates 160.

In the quantum dot device 100 of FIG. 3, the quantum dot gates 150 ineach nearest neighbor pair have a barrier gate disposed between them.The quantum dot gate lines 102 connect quantum dot gates 150 along thediagonal of the underlying grid. As discussed in further detail below,during operation of the quantum dot device 100 of FIG. 3, quantuminteractions between nearest neighbor quantum dots under different onesof the quantum dot gates 150 may be controlled in part by the potentialenergy barrier provided by the intervening barrier gates 160.

FIGS. 4A-4D are various views of a quantum dot device 100, in accordancewith various embodiments. In particular, FIG. 4A is a “top” view similarto the views of FIGS. 1A and 3, FIG. 4B is a cross-sectional viewcorresponding to the arrow marked “B” in FIG. 4A, FIG. 4C is across-sectional view similar to that of FIG. 1B (and corresponding tothe arrow marked “C” in FIG. 4A), and FIG. 4D is a cross-sectional viewsimilar to that of FIG. 1D (and corresponding to the arrow marked “D” inFIG. 4A). The embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4 is substantially similarto that discussed above with reference to FIGS. 1 and 2, except that thegate dielectric 114 does not extend continuously over the quantum wellstack 146, but is instead separately disposed between different portionsof the gate metals and the quantum well stack 146. Such an arrangementmay be manufactured by not initially depositing a gate dielectric 114,and instead depositing the gate dielectric 114 just prior to depositingthe gate metal. FIGS. 4B-4D also include some example dimensions forexample embodiments of the quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein, aswell as illustrating the location of quantum dots 142 (shown as “e−”electron-spin-based quantum dots) under the quantum dot gates 150. Insome embodiments, the distance 164 may be between 50 nanometers and 200nanometers (e.g., between 75 and 125 nanometers, between 80 and 90nanometers, or approximately 84 nanometers). In some embodiments, thedistance 166 may be between 25 and 100 nanometers (e.g., between 40 and80 nanometers, or approximately 70 nanometers). In some embodiments, thedistance 168 may be between 80 and 200 nanometers (e.g., between 100 and150 nanometers, or approximately 120 nanometers). Comparing FIGS. 4B and4D, nearest neighbor quantum dots (e.g., on the “diagonal”) may besubstantially closer together than quantum dots under adjacent quantumdot gates in a single quantum dot gate line 102, and thus the nearestneighbor quantum dots may be close enough to interact (while those underadjacent quantum dot gates in a single quantum dot gate line 102 may notbe close enough to interact). Quantum operations using the quantum dotdevices 100 disclosed herein may thus be said to take place “on thediagonal,” as discussed in further detail below.

FIGS. 5A-5C illustrate various example dimensions of a quantum dotdevice 100, in accordance with various embodiments. For example, asillustrated in FIG. 5A, when the quantum dot gate lines 102 have a pitchof 60 nanometers, and the barrier gate lines 104 have a pitch of 60nanometers, two quantum dots that form under nearest neighbor quantumdot gates (along the “diagonal”) may be spaced apart by approximately 85nanometers. As illustrated in FIG. 5B, when the quantum dot gate lines102 have a pitch of 45 nanometers, and the barrier gate lines 104 have apitch of 45 nanometers, two quantum dots that form under nearestneighbor quantum dot gates may be spaced apart by approximately 64nanometers. As illustrated in FIG. 5C, when the quantum dot gate lines102 have a pitch of 60 nanometers, and the barrier gate lines 104 have apitch of 45 nanometers (or vice versa), two quantum dots that form undernearest neighbor quantum dot gates may be spaced apart by approximately75 nanometers. Any other desired pitches or combinations of pitches maybe used to pattern the quantum dot gate lines 102 and/or the barriergate lines 104.

FIGS. 6-8 illustrate various electrical configurations that may be usedto perform quantum operations in a quantum dot device 100, in accordancewith various embodiments. The quantum dot device 100 schematicallyillustrated in FIGS. 6-8 may take the form of any of the quantum dotdevices 100 disclosed herein (e.g., any of those discussed above withreference to FIGS. 1-5). The voltages applied to the gate lines, asdiscussed below with reference to FIGS. 6-8, may be controlled by anysuitable control circuitry 175 (illustrated in FIG. 9). The controlcircuitry 175 may include multiplexers or other suitable circuitry forselectively applying voltages to various ones of the gate lines. Inparticular, the control circuitry 175 may be configured to provide anadjustable voltage to a selected barrier gate line 104 while leavingother barrier gate lines 104 at a constant voltage, as suitable. Thecontrol circuitry 175 may also be configured to provide microwave pulsesand DC voltage to each quantum dot gate line 102 separately, and hold DCvoltages constant during operation, as suitable.

FIG. 6 illustrates an electrical configuration in which quantum dots areformed under quantum dot gates (indicated by the green circles), but noquantum dot interactions take place. In the configuration of FIG. 6, allof the quantum dot gate lines 102 may be supplied with voltages(indicated as Vtuned) in FIG. 6 that allow the quantum dot gatesassociated with different quantum dot gate lines 102 to be atessentially similar energy levels, and thus not likely to engage inquantum interaction across different quantum dot gate lines 102. Notethat the particular voltage value corresponding to Vtuned for aparticular quantum dot gate line 102 may be different from theparticular voltage value corresponding to Vtuned for a different quantumdot gate line 102; however, the voltages on each of the quantum dot gatelines 102 may be set to a “tuned” value (that may differ between quantumdot gate lines 102) that limits or prevents quantum interaction betweenquantum dots forming under the different quantum dot gate lines 102.Similarly, the barrier gate lines 104 may be supplied with voltages(indicated as Voff) that may be sufficient to provide a high potentialenergy barrier between the quantum dot gates on either side of thebarrier gate lines 104. Note that the particular voltage valuecorresponding to Voff for a particular barrier gate line 104 may bedifferent than the particular voltage value corresponding to Voff foranother barrier gate line 104; however, the voltages on each of thebarrier gate lines 104 may be set to an “off” value (that may differbetween barrier gate lines 104) that limits or prevents quantuminteraction between quantum dots forming on either side of each barriergate line 104. The sequence of voltages applied to the quantum dot andbarrier gate lines 104 may allow each of the quantum dots to be occupiedby a single electron, and, as noted above, the voltage Voff on thebarrier gate lines 104 may be sufficient to provide a high potentialenergy barrier between nearest neighbor quantum dots and thereby limitor prevent quantum interaction.

FIG. 7 illustrates an electrical configuration that may implement aPauli gate (or “NOT”) operation on a particular quantum dot (identifiedin FIG. 7 by “π”). In some embodiments, the quantum dot device 100 mayinclude a set of magnets 177 above the quantum dot gates such that thequantum dot gates are disposed between corresponding magnets 177 and thequantum well stack 146. The magnets 177 may be magnets, for example.FIG. 10 illustrates one example arrangement of magnets 177 in a quantumdot device 100, but any desired arrangement may be used. Each magnet 177along a quantum dot gate line 102 may have a different associatedfrequency. This frequency may be engineered to take a particular value,or different magnets 177 may have different frequencies due to processvariations. Any suitable magnets 177 may be used, and each magnet 177may thus act as an “antenna” for directing energy of a matchingfrequency to the quantum dot associated with the magnet 177. To performa Pauli gate operation, a microwave pulse (e.g., in the gigahertz range)may be applied to the quantum dot gate line 102 that includes thequantum dot gate associated with the quantum dot π. The frequency of themicrowave pulse may allow the quantum dot π to be selected by the fieldgradient of the associated magnet 177, and thus the microwave pulse maychange only the state of the quantum dot π (and not other quantum dotsdisposed below the same quantum dot gate line 102). The voltages on theother quantum dot gate lines 102 may remain fixed, and the voltages onthe barrier gate lines 104 may also remain fixed to confine the Pauligate operation to the quantum dot π.

FIG. 8 illustrates an electrical configuration that may implement anexchange gate operation on a pair of nearest neighbor (“diagonal”)quantum dots (identified in FIG. 8 by “1” and “2”). An exchange gate mayallow the quantum dots 1 and 2 to undergo a quantum interaction byappropriately adjusting the potential energy around them, as describedbelow. The barrier gate line 104 that separates the quantum dots 1 and 2may have its voltage adjusted to a value (Von) that lowers the potentialenergy barrier between the quantum dots 1 and 2 low enough for them tointeract; other barrier gate lines 104 may maintain voltages (Voff) inwhich quantum dots separated by the associated barrier gates 160 do notinteract (as discussed above with reference to FIG. 6). The voltageapplied to the quantum dot gate line 102 associated with quantum dot 1(labeled gate line “x”) and the voltage applied to the quantum dot gateline 102 associated with quantum dot 2 (labeled gate line “x+1”) may bemade different from each other to provide some energy for theirinteraction. All of the quantum dot gate lines 102 on the same “side” asthe quantum dot gate line 102 x (i.e., the quantum dot gate lines 102 0,. . . ,x−1) may have mutually tuned voltages (which may differ betweendifferent quantum dot gate lines 102, as discussed above with referenceto FIG. 6) that tunes these quantum dot gate lines 102 to the quantumdot gate line 102 x (in FIG. 8, indicated as Vtuned) so that quantumdots formed under different ones of these quantum dot gate lines 102 0,. . . , x may not interact. Similarly, all of the quantum dot gate lines102 on the same “side” as the quantum dot gate line 102 x+1 (i.e., thequantum dot gate lines 102 x+2, . . . ,x+n) may have mutually tunedvoltages (which may differ between different quantum dot gate lines 102,as discussed above with reference to FIG. 6) that tunes these quantumdot gate lines 102 to the quantum dot gate line 102 x+1 (in FIG. 8,indicated as Vde-tuned) so that quantum dots formed under different onesof the quantum dot gate lines 102 x+1, . . . ,x+n may not interact. Inthis manner, the interaction of quantum dots in the quantum dot device100 of FIG. 8 may be limited to the interaction of quantum dots 1 and 2.Any pair of nearest neighbor quantum dots may be selectively allowed tointeract using such a technique.

FIG. 9 illustrates an interconnect arrangement for a quantum dot device100, in accordance with various embodiments. The quantum dot device 100schematically illustrated in FIG. 9 may take the form of any of thequantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein (e.g., those discussed abovewith reference to FIGS. 1-5), and interconnects may be made to thebarrier gate lines 104 and the quantum dot gate lines 102 in any desiredmanner. In FIG. 9, each gate line may be routed out to a bond pad forconnection to a processing device or other control device to control thevoltages on the gate lines (e.g., to perform any of the operationsdiscussed above with reference to FIGS. 6-8).

FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view of a double-sided quantum dot device100, in accordance with various embodiments. The quantum dot device 100of FIG. 11 may be formed by performing the operations discussed abovewith reference to FIG. 2, flipping the result over, and performing thesame operations on the “other side” of the quantum well stack 146. Thequantum well stack 146 may itself include two quantum well layers, onein which quantum dots may be formed by the gates on the correspondingside of the quantum well stack 146, and the other in which quantum dotsmay be formed by the gates on the other, corresponding side of thequantum well stack 146. In some embodiments, the quantum dots formed inone of the quantum well layers may act as the “active” quantum dots inthe quantum dot device 100, and the quantum dots formed in the other ofthe quantum well layers may act as the “read” quantum dots, sensing thestate of the active quantum dots for readout (e.g., through thecorresponding gates and other interconnects).

FIGS. 12A-12E illustrate various examples of quantum well stacks 146that may provide the quantum well stacks 146 of any of the embodimentsof the quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein. In some embodiments,the layers of the quantum well stacks 146 may be grown on a substrate(e.g., a silicon or germanium wafer) (and on each other) by epitaxy.Although the quantum well stacks 146 illustrated in FIG. 12 each includetwo quantum well layers 152 (e.g., as appropriate for a double-sideddevice, as discussed above with reference to FIG. 11), in someembodiments, the quantum well stack 146 included in a quantum dot device100 may include one quantum well layer 152 or more than two quantum welllayers 152; elements may be omitted from the quantum well stacks 146, oradded to the quantum well stacks 146, discussed with reference to FIG.12 to achieve such embodiments, as appropriate. Layers other than thequantum well layer(s) 152 in a quantum well stack 146 may have higherthreshold voltages for conduction than the quantum well layer(s) 152 sothat when the quantum well layer(s) 152 are biased at their thresholdvoltages, the quantum well layer(s) 152 conduct and the other layers ofthe quantum well stack 146 do not. This may avoid parallel conduction inboth the quantum well layer(s) 152 and the other layers, and thus avoidcompromising the strong mobility of the quantum well layer(s) 152 withconduction in layers having inferior mobility.

FIG. 12A is a cross-sectional view of a quantum well stack 146 includingonly a quantum well layer 152-1, a barrier layer 154, and a quantum welllayer 152-2. In some embodiments, the quantum well layers 152 of FIG.12A may be formed of intrinsic silicon, and the gate dielectrics 114 maybe formed of silicon oxide; in such an arrangement, during use of thequantum dot device 100, a 2DEG may form in the intrinsic silicon at theinterface between the intrinsic silicon and the proximate silicon oxide.Embodiments in which the quantum well layers 152 of FIG. 12A are formedof intrinsic silicon may be particularly advantageous for electron-typequantum dot devices 100. In some embodiments, the quantum well layers152 of FIG. 12A may be formed of intrinsic germanium, and the gatedielectrics 114 may be formed of germanium oxide; in such anarrangement, during use of the quantum dot device 100, a 2DEG may formin the intrinsic germanium at the interface between the intrinsicgermanium and the proximate germanium oxide. Such embodiments may beparticularly advantageous for hole-type quantum dot devices 100. In someembodiments, the quantum well layers 152 may be strained, while in otherembodiments, the quantum well layers 152 may not be strained.

The barrier layer 154 of FIG. 12A may provide a potential barrierbetween the quantum well layer 152-1 and the quantum well layer 152-2.In some embodiments in which the quantum well layers 152 of FIG. 12A areformed of silicon, the barrier layer 154 may be formed of silicongermanium. The germanium content of this silicon germanium may be 20-80%(e.g., 30%). In some embodiments in which the quantum well layers 152are formed of germanium, the barrier layer 154 may be formed of silicongermanium (with a germanium content of 20-80% (e.g., 70%)).

The thicknesses (i.e., z-heights) of the layers in the quantum wellstack 146 of FIG. 12A may take any suitable values. For example, in someembodiments, the thickness of the barrier layer 154 (e.g., silicongermanium) may be between 0 and 400 nanometers. In some embodiments, thethickness of the quantum well layers 152 (e.g., silicon or germanium)may be between 5 and 30 nanometers.

FIG. 12B is a cross-sectional view of a quantum well stack 146 includingquantum well layers 152-1 and 152-2, a barrier layer 154-2 disposedbetween the quantum well layers 152-1 and 152-2, and additional barrierlayers 154-1 and 154-3. In the quantum dot device 100, the barrier layer154-1 may be disposed between the quantum well layer 152-1 and the gatedielectric 114-1 (see, e.g., FIG. 11). The barrier layer 154-3 may bedisposed between the quantum well layer 152-2 and the gate dielectric114-2 (see, e.g., FIG. 11). In some embodiments, the barrier layer 154-3may be formed of a material (e.g., silicon germanium), and when thequantum well stack 146 is being grown on the substrate 144, the barrierlayer 154-3 may include a buffer region of that material. This bufferregion may trap defects that form in this material as it is grown on thesubstrate 144, and in some embodiments, the buffer region may be grownunder different conditions (e.g., deposition temperature or growth rate)from the rest of the barrier layer 154-3. In particular, the rest of thebarrier layer 154-3 may be grown under conditions that achieve fewerdefects than the buffer region. In some embodiments, the buffer regionmay be lattice mismatched with the quantum well layer(s) 152 in aquantum well stack 146, imparting biaxial strain to the quantum welllayer(s) 152.

The barrier layers 154-1 and 154-3 may provide potential energy barriersaround the quantum well layers 152-1 and 152-2, respectively, and thebarrier layer 154-1 may take the form of any of the embodiments of thebarrier layer 154-3 discussed herein. In some embodiments, the barrierlayer 154-1 may have a similar form as the barrier layer 154-3, but maynot include a “buffer region” as discussed above; in the quantum dotdevice 100, the barrier layer 154-3 and the barrier layer 154-1 may havesubstantially the same structure. The barrier layer 154-2 may take theform of any of the embodiments of the barrier layer 154 discussed abovewith reference to FIG. 12A. The thicknesses (i.e., z-heights) of thelayers in the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 12B may take any suitablevalues. For example, in some embodiments, the thickness of the barrierlayers 154-1 and 154-3 (e.g., silicon germanium) in the quantum dotdevice 100 may be between 0 and 400 nanometers. In some embodiments, thethickness of the quantum well layers 152 (e.g., silicon or germanium)may be between 5 and 30 nanometers (e.g., 10 nanometers). In someembodiments, the thickness of the barrier layer 154-2 (e.g., silicongermanium) may be between 25 and 75 nanometers (e.g., 32 nanometers).

FIGS. 12C-12D illustrate examples of quantum well stacks 146 includingdoped layer(s) 137. As noted above, doped layer(s) 137 may be includedin a quantum well stack 146 instead of or in addition to an accumulationregion 162.

FIG. 12C is a cross-sectional view of a quantum well stack 146 includinga buffer layer 176, a barrier layer 155-2, a quantum well layer 152-2, abarrier layer 154-2, a doped layer 137, a barrier layer 154-1, a quantumwell layer 152-1, and a barrier layer 155-1.

The buffer layer 176 may be formed of the same material as the barrierlayer 155-2, and may be present to trap defects that form in thismaterial as it is grown. In some embodiments, the buffer layer 176 maybe grown under different conditions (e.g., deposition temperature orgrowth rate) from the barrier layer 155-2. In particular, the barrierlayer 155-2 may be grown under conditions that achieve fewer defectsthan the buffer layer 176. In some embodiments in which the buffer layer176 includes silicon germanium, the silicon germanium of the bufferlayer 176 may have a germanium content that varies to the barrier layer155-2; for example, the silicon germanium of the buffer layer 176 mayhave a germanium content that varies from zero percent to a nonzeropercent (e.g., 30%) at the barrier layer 155-2. The buffer layer 176 maybe grown beyond its critical layer thickness such that it issubstantially free of stress from the underlying base (and thus may bereferred to as “relaxed”). In some embodiments, the thickness of thebuffer layer 176 (e.g., silicon germanium) may be between 0.3 and 4microns (e.g., 0.3-2 microns, or 0.5 microns). In some embodiments, thebuffer layer 176 may be lattice mismatched with the quantum welllayer(s) 152 in a quantum well stack 146, imparting biaxial strain tothe quantum well layer(s) 152.

The barrier layer 155-2 may provide a potential energy barrier proximateto the quantum well layer 152-2. The barrier layer 155-2 may be formedof any suitable materials. For example, in some embodiments in which thequantum well layer 152 is formed of silicon or germanium, the barrierlayer 155-2 may be formed of silicon germanium. In some embodiments, thethickness of the barrier layer 155-2 may be between 0 and 400 nanometers(e.g., between 25 and 75 nanometers).

The quantum well layer 152-2 may be formed of a different material thanthe barrier layer 155-2. Generally, a quantum well layer 152 may beformed of a material such that, during operation of the quantum dotdevice 100, a 2DEG may form in the quantum well layer 152. Embodimentsin which the quantum well layer 152 is formed of intrinsic silicon maybe particularly advantageous for electron-type quantum dot devices 100.Embodiments in which a quantum well layer 152 is formed of intrinsicgermanium may be particularly advantageous for hole-type quantum dotdevices 100. In some embodiments, a quantum well layer 152 may bestrained, while in other embodiments, a quantum well layer 152 may notbe strained. The thickness of a quantum well layer 152 may take anysuitable values; in some embodiments, a quantum well layer 152 may havea thickness between 5 and 30 nanometers.

In the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 12C, the doped layer 137 may be“shared” by the two quantum well layers 152 in the quantum well stack146, in that the doped layer 137 provides carriers to the quantum welllayer 152-1 and the quantum well layer 152-2 during use. In the quantumdot device 100, the quantum well layer 152-1 may be disposed between thedoped layer 137 and the gate dielectric 114-1, while the quantum welllayer 152-2 may be disposed between the doped layer 137 and the gatedielectric 114-2. The doped layer 137 of FIG. 12C may be doped with ann-type material (e.g., for an electron-type quantum dot device 100) or ap-type material (e.g., for a hole-type quantum dot device 100). In someembodiments, the doping concentration of the doped layer 137 may bebetween 10¹⁷/cm³ and 10²⁰/cm³ (e.g., between 10¹⁷/cm³ and 10¹⁸/cm³). Thethickness (i.e., z- height) of the doped layer 137 may depend on thedoping concentration, among other factors, and in some embodiments, maybe between 5 and 50 nanometers (e.g., between 20 and 30 nanometers).

A doped layer 137 may be formed using any of a number of techniques. Insome embodiments, a doped layer 137 may be formed of an undoped basematerial (e.g., silicon germanium) that is doped in situ during growthof the base material by epitaxy. In some embodiments, a doped layer 137may initially be fully formed of an undoped base material (e.g., silicongermanium), then a layer of dopant may be deposited on this basematerial (e.g., a monolayer of the desired dopant), and an annealingprocess may be performed to drive the dopant into the base material. Insome embodiments, a doped layer 137 may initially be fully formed of anundoped base material (e.g., silicon germanium), and the dopant may beimplanted into the lattice (and, in some embodiments, may besubsequently annealed). In some embodiments, a doped layer 137 may beprovided by a silicon germanium layer (e.g., with 90% germanium content)doped with an n-type dopant. In general, any suitable technique may beused to form a doped layer 137.

The barrier layer 154-2 may not be doped, and thus may provide a barrierto prevent impurities in the doped layer 137 from diffusing into thequantum well layer 152-2 and forming recombination sites or otherdefects that may reduce channel conduction and thereby impedeperformance of the quantum dot device 100. In some embodiments of thequantum well stack 146 of FIG. 12C, the doped layer 137 may include asame material as the barrier layer 154-2, but the barrier layer 154-2may not be doped. For example, in some embodiments, the doped layer 137and the barrier layer 154-2 may both be silicon germanium. In someembodiments in which the quantum well layer 152-2 is formed of silicon,the barrier layer 154-2 may be formed of silicon germanium. Thegermanium content of this silicon germanium may be 20-80% (e.g., 30%).In some embodiments in which the quantum well layer 152-2 is formed ofgermanium, the barrier layer 154-2 may be formed of silicon germanium(with a germanium content of 20-80% (e.g., 70%)). The thickness of thebarrier layer 154-2 may depend on the doping concentration of the dopedlayer 137, among other factors discussed below, and in some embodiments,may be between 5 and 50 nanometers (e.g., between 20 and 30 nanometers).

The barrier layer 154-1 may provide a barrier to prevent impurities inthe doped layer 137 from diffusing into the quantum well layer 152-1,and may take any of the forms described herein for the barrier layer154-2. Similarly, the quantum well layer 152-1 may take any of the formsdescribed herein for the quantum well layer 152-2. The barrier layer155-1 may provide a potential energy barrier proximate to the quantumwell layer 152-1 (as discussed above with reference to the barrier layer155-2 and the quantum well layer 152-2), and may take any of the formsdescribed herein for the barrier layer 155-2.

The thickness of a barrier layer 154 may impact the ease with whichcarriers in the doped layer 137 can move into a quantum well layer 152disposed on the other side of the barrier layer 154. The thicker thebarrier layer 154, the more difficult it may be for carriers to moveinto the quantum well layer 152; at the same time, the thicker thebarrier layer 154, the more effective it may be at preventing impuritiesfrom the doped layer 137 from moving into the quantum well layer 152.Additionally, the diffusion of impurities may depend on the temperatureat which the quantum dot device 100 operates. Thus, the thickness of thebarrier layer 154 may be adjusted to achieve a desired energy barrierand impurity screening effect between the doped layer 137 and thequantum well layer 152 during expected operating conditions.

In some embodiments of the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 12C (e.g.,those included in “single-sided” quantum dot devices 100), only a singlequantum well layer 152 may be included. For example, the layers 154-1and 152-1 may be omitted, and gates may be formed proximate to thebarrier layer 155-1 such that the quantum well layer 152-1 is disposedbetween the gates and the doped layer 137. In other embodiments, thelayers 154-1, 152-1, and 155-2 may be omitted, and gates may be formedproximate to the doped layer 137. In some embodiments, the buffer layer176 and/or the barrier layer 155-2 may be omitted from the quantum wellstack 146 of FIG. 12C.

FIG. 12D is a cross-sectional view of a quantum well stack 146 that issimilar to the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 12C, except that in theplace of the single doped layer 137 shared by two quantum well layers152, the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 12D includes two different dopedlayers 137-2 and 137-1 (spaced apart by a barrier layer 155-3). In suchan embodiment, the doped layer 137-2 may provide a source of carriersfor the quantum well layer 152-2, and the doped layer 137-1 may providea source of carriers for the quantum well layer 152-1. The barrier layer155-3 may provide a potential barrier between the two doped layers 137,and may take any suitable form. Generally, the elements of the quantumwell stack 146 of FIG. 12D may take the form of any of the correspondingelements of the quantum well stack 146 of FIG. 12C. The doped layers137-1 and 137-2 may have the same geometry and material composition, ormay have different geometries and/or material compositions.

FIG. 12E is a cross-sectional view of a quantum well stack 146 in whichtwo doped layers 137-1 and 137-2 are disposed toward the “outside” ofthe quantum well stack 146, rather than the “inside” of the quantum wellstack 146, as illustrated in FIGS. 12C and 12D. In particular, thequantum well layer 152-2 is disposed between the doped layer 137-2 andthe quantum well layer 152-1, and the quantum well layer 152-1 isdisposed between the doped layer 137-1 and the quantum well layer 152-2.In the quantum dot device 100, the doped layer 137-1 may be disposedbetween the quantum well layer 152-1 and the gate dielectric 114-1,while the doped layer 137-2 may be disposed between the quantum welllayer 152-2 and the gate dielectric 114-2. In the quantum well stack 146of FIG. 12E, a barrier layer 155-3 provides a potential barrier betweenthe quantum well layers 152-1 and 152-2 (rather than between the dopedlayers 137-1 and 137-2, as illustrated in the quantum well stack 146 ofFIG. 12D). Generally, the elements of the quantum well stack 146 of FIG.12E may take the form of any of the corresponding elements of thequantum well stack 146 of FIGS. 12A-D.

In some particular embodiments in which the quantum dot device 100 is a“single-sided” device with only one set of gates, the quantum well stack146 may include a silicon base, a buffer layer 176 of silicon germanium(e.g., with 30% germanium content), then a doped layer 137 formed ofsilicon germanium doped with an n-type dopant, a thin barrier layer 154formed of silicon germanium (e.g., silicon germanium with 70% germaniumcontent), a silicon quantum well layer 152, and a barrier layer 155formed of silicon germanium (e.g., with 30% germanium content); in suchan embodiment, the gates may be disposed on the barrier layer 155. Insome other particular embodiments in which the quantum dot device 100 isa “single-sided” device with only one set of gates, the quantum wellstack 146 may include a silicon base, a doped layer 137 formed ofsilicon doped with an n-type dopant, a thin barrier layer 154 formed ofsilicon germanium, and a silicon quantum well layer 152; in such anembodiment, the gates may be disposed on the silicon quantum well layer152.

FIGS. 13A-B are top views of a wafer 450 and dies 452 that may be formedfrom the wafer 450; the dies 452 may include any of the quantum dotdevices 100 disclosed herein. The wafer 450 may include semiconductormaterial and may include one or more dies 452 having conventional andquantum dot device elements formed on a surface of the wafer 450. Eachof the dies 452 may be a repeating unit of a semiconductor product thatincludes any suitable conventional and/or quantum dot device. After thefabrication of the semiconductor product is complete, the wafer 450 mayundergo a singulation process in which each of the dies 452 is separatedfrom one another to provide discrete “chips” of the semiconductorproduct. A die 452 may include one or more quantum dot devices 100and/or supporting circuitry to route electrical signals to the quantumdot devices (e.g., interconnects including conductive vias and lines, orany control circuitry 175, as discussed above with reference to FIG. 9),as well as any other IC components. In some embodiments, the wafer 450or the die 452 may include a memory device (e.g., a static random accessmemory (SRAM) device), a logic device (e.g., AND, OR, NAND, or NORgate), or any other suitable circuit element. Multiple ones of thesedevices may be combined on a single die 452. For example, a memory arrayformed by multiple memory devices may be formed on a same die 452 as aprocessing device (e.g., the processing device 2002 of FIG. 15) or otherlogic that is configured to store information in the memory devices orexecute instructions stored in the memory array.

FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional side view of a device assembly 400 that mayinclude any of the embodiments of the quantum dot devices 100 disclosedherein. The device assembly 400 includes a number of components disposedon a circuit board 402. The device assembly 400 may include componentsdisposed on a first face 440 of the circuit board 402 and an opposingsecond face 442 of the circuit board 402; generally, components may bedisposed on one or both faces 440 and 442.

In some embodiments, the circuit board 402 may be a printed circuitboard (PCB) including multiple metal layers separated from one anotherby layers of dielectric material and interconnected by electricallyconductive vias. Any one or more of the metal layers may be formed in adesired circuit pattern to route electrical signals (optionally inconjunction with other metal layers) between the components coupled tothe circuit board 402. In other embodiments, the circuit board 402 maybe a package substrate or flexible board.

The device assembly 400 illustrated in FIG. 14 includes apackage-on-interposer structure 436 coupled to the first face 440 of thecircuit board 402 by coupling components 416. The coupling components416 may electrically and mechanically couple the package-on-interposerstructure 436 to the circuit board 402, and may include solder balls (asshown in FIG. 14), male and female portions of a socket, an adhesive, anunderfill material, and/or any other suitable electrical and/ormechanical coupling structure.

The package-on-interposer structure 436 may include a package 420coupled to an interposer 404 by coupling components 418. The couplingcomponents 418 may take any suitable form for the application, such asthe forms discussed above with reference to the coupling components 416.Although a single package 420 is shown in FIG. 14, multiple packages maybe coupled to the interposer 404; indeed, additional interposers may becoupled to the interposer 404. The interposer 404 may provide anintervening substrate used to bridge the circuit board 402 and thepackage 420. The package 420 may be a quantum dot device package (e.g.,a package that includes one or more quantum dot devices 100) or may be aconventional IC package, for example. In some embodiments, the package420 may include a quantum dot device die (e.g., a die that includes oneor more quantum dot devices 100) coupled to a package substrate (e.g.,by flip chip connections). Generally, the interposer 404 may spread aconnection to a wider pitch or reroute a connection to a differentconnection. For example, the interposer 404 may couple the package 420(e.g., a die) to a ball grid array (BGA) of the coupling components 416for coupling to the circuit board 402. In the embodiment illustrated inFIG. 14, the package 420 and the circuit board 402 are attached toopposing sides of the interposer 404; in other embodiments, the package420 and the circuit board 402 may be attached to a same side of theinterposer 404. In some embodiments, three or more components may beinterconnected by way of the interposer 404.

The interposer 404 may be formed of an epoxy resin, afiberglass-reinforced epoxy resin, a ceramic material, or a polymermaterial such as polyimide. In some embodiments, the interposer 404 maybe formed of alternate rigid or flexible materials that may include thesame materials described above for use in a semiconductor substrate,such as silicon, germanium, and other group III-V and group IVmaterials. The interposer 404 may include metal interconnects 408 andvias 410, including but not limited to through-silicon vias (TSVs) 406.The interposer 404 may further include embedded devices 414, includingboth passive and active devices. Such devices may include, but are notlimited to, capacitors, decoupling capacitors, resistors, inductors,fuses, diodes, transformers, sensors, electrostatic discharge (ESD)devices, and memory devices. More complex devices such asradio-frequency (RF) devices, power amplifiers, power managementdevices, antennas, arrays, sensors, and microelectromechanical systems(MEMS) devices may also be formed on the interposer 404. Thepackage-on-interposer structure 436 may take the form of any of thepackage-on-interposer structures known in the art.

The device assembly 400 may include a package 424 coupled to the firstface 440 of the circuit board 402 by coupling components 422. Thecoupling components 422 may take the form of any of the embodimentsdiscussed above with reference to the coupling components 416, and thepackage 424 may take the form of any of the embodiments discussed abovewith reference to the package 420. The package 424 may be a quantum dotdevice package (e.g., a package that includes one or more quantum dotdevices 100) or may be a conventional IC package, for example. In someembodiments, the package 424 may include a quantum dot device die (e.g.,a die that includes one or more quantum dot devices 100) coupled to apackage substrate (e.g., by flip chip connections).

The device assembly 400 illustrated in FIG. 14 includes apackage-on-package structure 434 coupled to the second face 442 of thecircuit board 402 by coupling components 428. The package-on-packagestructure 434 may include a package 426 and a package 432 coupledtogether by coupling components 430 such that the package 426 isdisposed between the circuit board 402 and the package 432. The couplingcomponents 428 and 430 may take the form of any of the embodiments ofthe coupling components 416 discussed above, and the packages 426 and432 may take the form of any of the embodiments of the package 420discussed above. Each of the packages 426 and 432 may be a quantum dotdevice package (e.g., a package that includes one or more quantum dotdevices 100) or may be a conventional IC package, for example. In someembodiments, one or both of the packages 426 and 432 may take the formof any of the embodiments of a quantum dot device package (e.g., apackage that includes one or more quantum dot devices 100) disclosedherein, and may include a die coupled to a package substrate (e.g., byflip chip connections).

FIG. 15 is a block diagram of an example quantum computing device 2000that may include any of the quantum dot devices 100 disclosed herein. Anumber of components are illustrated in FIG. 15 as included in thequantum computing device 2000, but any one or more of these componentsmay be omitted or duplicated, as suitable for the application. In someembodiments, some or all of the components included in the quantumcomputing device 2000 may be attached to one or more printed circuitboards (e.g., a motherboard). In some embodiments, various ones of thesecomponents may be fabricated onto a single system-on-a-chip (SoC) die.Additionally, in various embodiments, the quantum computing device 2000may not include one or more of the components illustrated in FIG. 15,but the quantum computing device 2000 may include interface circuitryfor coupling to the one or more components. For example, the quantumcomputing device 2000 may not include a display device 2006, but mayinclude display device interface circuitry (e.g., a connector and drivercircuitry) to which a display device 2006 may be coupled. In another setof examples, the quantum computing device 2000 may not include an audioinput device 2024 or an audio output device 2008, but may include audioinput or output device interface circuitry (e.g., connectors andsupporting circuitry) to which an audio input device 2024 or audiooutput device 2008 may be coupled.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a processing device 2002(e.g., one or more processing devices). As used herein, the term“processing device” or “processor” may refer to any device or portion ofa device that processes electronic data from registers and/or memory totransform that electronic data into other electronic data that may bestored in registers and/or memory. The processing device 2002 mayinclude a quantum processing device 2026 (e.g., one or more quantumprocessing devices), and a non-quantum processing device 2028 (e.g., oneor more non-quantum processing devices). The quantum processing device2026 may include one or more of the quantum dot devices 100 disclosedherein, and may perform data processing by performing operations on thequantum dots that may be generated in the quantum dot devices 100, andmonitoring the result of those operations. For example, as discussedabove, different quantum dots may be allowed to interact, the quantumstates of different quantum dots may be set or transformed, and thequantum states of quantum dots may be read (e.g., by another quantumdot). The quantum processing device 2026 may be a universal quantumprocessor, or specialized quantum processor configured to run one ormore particular quantum algorithms. In some embodiments, the quantumprocessing device 2026 may execute algorithms that are particularlysuitable for quantum computers, such as cryptographic algorithms thatutilize prime factorization, encryption/decryption, algorithms tooptimize chemical reactions, algorithms to model protein folding, etc.The quantum processing device 2026 may also include support circuitry tosupport the processing capability of the quantum processing device 2026,such as input/output channels, multiplexers, signal mixers, quantumamplifiers, and analog-to-digital converters.

As noted above, the processing device 2002 may include a non-quantumprocessing device 2028. In some embodiments, the non-quantum processingdevice 2028 may provide peripheral logic to support the operation of thequantum processing device 2026. For example, the non-quantum processingdevice 2028 may control the performance of a read operation, control theperformance of a write operation, control the clearing of quantum bits,control the performance of any of the operations discussed above withreference to FIGS. 6-8, etc. The non-quantum processing device 2028 mayalso perform conventional computing functions to supplement thecomputing functions provided by the quantum processing device 2026. Forexample, the non-quantum processing device 2028 may interface with oneor more of the other components of the quantum computing device 2000(e.g., the communication chip 2012 discussed below, the display device2006 discussed below, etc.) in a conventional manner, and may serve asan interface between the quantum processing device 2026 and conventionalcomponents. The non-quantum processing device 2028 may include one ormore digital signal processors (DSPs), application-specific integratedcircuits (ASICs), central processing units (CPUs), graphics processingunits (GPUs), cryptoprocessors (specialized processors that executecryptographic algorithms within hardware), server processors, or anyother suitable processing devices.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a memory 2004, which mayitself include one or more memory devices such as volatile memory (e.g.,dynamic random access memory (DRAM)), nonvolatile memory (e.g.,read-only memory (ROM)), flash memory, solid state memory, and/or a harddrive. In some embodiments, the states of qubits in the quantumprocessing device 2026 may be read and stored in the memory 2004. Insome embodiments, the memory 2004 may include memory that shares a diewith the non-quantum processing device 2028. This memory may be used ascache memory and may include embedded dynamic random access memory(eDRAM) or spin transfer torque magnetic random-access memory(STT-MRAM).

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a cooling apparatus 2030.The cooling apparatus 2030 may maintain the quantum processing device2026 at a predetermined low temperature during operation to reduce theeffects of scattering in the quantum processing device 2026. Thispredetermined low temperature may vary depending on the setting; in someembodiments, the temperature may be 5 degrees Kelvin or less. In someembodiments, the non-quantum processing device 2028 (and various othercomponents of the quantum computing device 2000) may not be cooled bythe cooling apparatus 2030, and may instead operate at room temperature.The cooling apparatus 2030 may be, for example, a dilution refrigerator,a helium-3 refrigerator, or a liquid helium refrigerator.

In some embodiments, the quantum computing device 2000 may include acommunication chip 2012 (e.g., one or more communication chips). Forexample, the communication chip 2012 may be configured for managingwireless communications for the transfer of data to and from the quantumcomputing device 2000. The term “wireless” and its derivatives may beused to describe circuits, devices, systems, methods, techniques,communications channels, etc., that may communicate data through the useof modulated electromagnetic radiation through a nonsolid medium. Theterm does not imply that the associated devices do not contain anywires, although in some embodiments they might not.

The communication chip 2012 may implement any of a number of wirelessstandards or protocols, including but not limited to Institute forElectrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) standards including Wi-Fi(IEEE 802.11 family), IEEE 802.16 standards (e.g., IEEE 802.16-2005Amendment), Long-Term Evolution (LTE) project along with any amendments,updates, and/or revisions (e.g., advanced LTE project, ultramobilebroadband (UMB) project (also referred to as “3GPP2”), etc.). IEEE802.16 compatible Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) networks are generallyreferred to as WiMAX networks, an acronym that stands for WorldwideInteroperability for Microwave Access, which is a certification mark forproducts that pass conformity and interoperability tests for the IEEE802.16 standards. The communication chip 2012 may operate in accordancewith a Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), General PacketRadio Service (GPRS), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS),High Speed Packet Access (HSPA), Evolved HSPA (E-HSPA), or LTE network.The communication chip 2012 may operate in accordance with Enhanced Datafor GSM Evolution (EDGE), GSM EDGE Radio Access Network (GERAN),Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN), or Evolved UTRAN(E-UTRAN). The communication chip 2012 may operate in accordance withCode Division Multiple Access (CDMA), Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT),Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), and derivatives thereof, as well asany other wireless protocols that are designated as 3G, 4G, 5G, andbeyond. The communication chip 2012 may operate in accordance with otherwireless protocols in other embodiments. The quantum computing device2000 may include an antenna 2022 to facilitate wireless communicationsand/or to receive other wireless communications (such as AM or FM radiotransmissions).

In some embodiments, the communication chip 2012 may manage wiredcommunications, such as electrical, optical, or any other suitablecommunication protocols (e.g., the Ethernet). As noted above, thecommunication chip 2012 may include multiple communication chips. Forinstance, a first communication chip 2012 may be dedicated toshorter-range wireless communications such as Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, and asecond communication chip 2012 may be dedicated to longer-range wirelesscommunications such as GPS, EDGE, GPRS, CDMA, WiMAX, LTE, EV-DO, orothers. In some embodiments, a first communication chip 2012 may bededicated to wireless communications, and a second communication chip2012 may be dedicated to wired communications.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include battery/power circuitry2014. The battery/power circuitry 2014 may include one or more energystorage devices (e.g., batteries or capacitors) and/or circuitry forcoupling components of the quantum computing device 2000 to an energysource separate from the quantum computing device 2000 (e.g., AC linepower).

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a display device 2006 (orcorresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). The displaydevice 2006 may include any visual indicators, such as a heads-updisplay, a computer monitor, a projector, a touchscreen display, aliquid crystal display (LCD), a light-emitting diode display, or a flatpanel display, for example.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include an audio output device2008 (or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). Theaudio output device 2008 may include any device that generates anaudible indicator, such as speakers, headsets, or earbuds, for example.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include an audio input device 2024(or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). The audioinput device 2024 may include any device that generates a signalrepresentative of a sound, such as microphones, microphone arrays, ordigital instruments (e.g., instruments having a musical instrumentdigital interface (MIDI) output).

The quantum computing device 2000 may include a global positioningsystem (GPS) device 2018 (or corresponding interface circuitry, asdiscussed above). The GPS device 2018 may be in communication with asatellite-based system and may receive a location of the quantumcomputing device 2000, as known in the art.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include an other output device2010 (or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above).Examples of the other output device 2010 may include an audio codec, avideo codec, a printer, a wired or wireless transmitter for providinginformation to other devices, or an additional storage device.

The quantum computing device 2000 may include an other input device 2020(or corresponding interface circuitry, as discussed above). Examples ofthe other input device 2020 may include an accelerometer, a gyroscope, acompass, an image capture device, a keyboard, a cursor control devicesuch as a mouse, a stylus, a touchpad, a bar code reader, a QuickResponse (QR) code reader, any sensor, or a radio frequencyidentification (RFID) reader.

The quantum computing device 2000, or a subset of its components, mayhave any appropriate form factor, such as a hand-held or mobilecomputing device (e.g., a cell phone, a smart phone, a mobile internetdevice, a music player, a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a netbookcomputer, an ultrabook computer, a personal digital assistant (PDA), anultramobile personal computer, etc.), a desktop computing device, aserver or other networked computing component, a printer, a scanner, amonitor, a set-top box, an entertainment control unit, a vehicle controlunit, a digital camera, a digital video recorder, or a wearablecomputing device.

Any suitable materials may be used in various ones of the embodimentsdisclosed herein. For example, in some embodiments, the gate dielectric114 may be a multilayer gate dielectric. The gate dielectric 114 may be,for example, silicon oxide, aluminum oxide, or a high-k dielectric, suchas hafnium oxide. More generally, the gate dielectric 114 may includeelements such as hafnium, silicon, oxygen, titanium, tantalum,lanthanum, aluminum, zirconium, barium, strontium, yttrium, lead,scandium, niobium, and zinc. Examples of materials that may be used inthe gate dielectric 114 may include, but are not limited to, hafniumoxide, hafnium silicon oxide, lanthanum oxide, lanthanum aluminum oxide,zirconium oxide, zirconium silicon oxide, tantalum oxide, titaniumoxide, barium strontium titanium oxide, barium titanium oxide, strontiumtitanium oxide, yttrium oxide, aluminum oxide, tantalum oxide, tantalumsilicon oxide, lead scandium tantalum oxide, and lead zinc niobate. Insome embodiments, an annealing process may be carried out on the gatedielectric 114 to improve the quality of the gate dielectric 114.

In some embodiments, any of the gate metals (e.g., the barrier gatemetal 108 and/or the quantum dot gate metal 106) may be asuperconductor, such as aluminum, titanium nitride (e.g., deposited viaatomic layer deposition), or niobium titanium nitride. The spacermaterials (e.g., the spacer material 118, 134, or 140) may be anysuitable material, such as a carbon-doped oxide, silicon nitride,silicon oxide, or other carbides or nitrides (e.g., silicon carbide,silicon nitride doped with carbon, and silicon oxynitride). Theinsulating materials 128 may include silicon oxide, silicon nitride,aluminum oxide, carbon-doped oxide, and/or silicon oxynitride, forexample. Hardmasks (e.g., the hardmasks 110 and 112) may be formed ofsilicon nitride, silicon carbide, or another suitable material.

The following paragraphs provide examples of various ones of theembodiments disclosed herein.

Example A1 is a quantum dot device, including: a quantum well stack; aplurality of first gates above the quantum well stack; and a pluralityof second gates above the quantum well stack; wherein a first gate isbetween each nearest neighbor pair of second gates.

Example A2 is a quantum dot device, including: a quantum well stack; aplurality of first gates above the quantum well stack; and a pluralityof second gates above the quantum well stack; wherein the plurality offirst gates are arranged in electrically continuous rows extending in afirst direction, and the plurality of second gates are arranged inelectrically continuous rows extending in a second directionperpendicular to the first direction.

Example A3 is a quantum dot device, including: a quantum well stack; aplurality of first gates above the quantum well stack; and a pluralityof second gates above the quantum well stack; wherein the plurality ofsecond gates are arranged as points in a grid, and diagonal subsets ofthe plurality of second gates with respect to the grid are electricallycontinuous.

Example A4 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-3, andmay further specify that an individual first gate includes a first gatemetal that extends between multiple nearest neighbor pairs of the secondgates.

Example A5 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-4, andmay further specify that an insulating material is disposed between afirst one of the first gates and a second one of the first gatesadjacent to the first one of the first gates.

Example A6 may include the subject matter of Example A5, and may furtherspecify that at least one second gate is disposed between the first oneof the first gates and a third one of the first gates adjacent to thefirst one of the first gates such that the first one of the first gatesis between the second one of the first gates and the third one of thefirst gates.

Example A7 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-6, andmay further include a hardmask above gate metal of the first gates.

Example A8 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-7, andmay further include multiple hardmasks above gate metal of the firstgates.

Example A9 may include the subject matter of Example A8, and may furtherinclude an insulating material between at least two of the hardmasks.

Example A10 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A7-9, andmay further include an insulating material on the hardmask such that theinsulating material is between the hardmask and gate metal of the secondgates.

Example A11 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-10, andmay further include insulating material between gate metal of the firstgates and gate metal of the second gates such that the gate metal of thefirst gates is between the insulating material and the quantum wellstack.

Example A12 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-11, andmay further include spacer material between gate metal of the firstgates and gate metal of the second gates.

Example A13 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-12, andmay further include second gate metal stubs alternatingly arranged withsecond gates.

Example A14 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-13, andmay further include spacer material disposed above gate metal of thesecond gates.

Example A15 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-14, andmay further include a gate dielectric between gate metal of the firstgates and the quantum well stack.

Example A16 may include the subject matter of Example A15, and mayfurther specify that the gate dielectric continuously extends betweengate metal of the second gates and the quantum well stack.

Example A17 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-16, andmay further specify that the first gates are dimensioned and positionedin accordance with a pitch halving technique.

Example A18 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-17, andmay further specify that the second gates are dimensioned and positionedin accordance with a pitch halving technique.

Example A19 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-18, andmay further include a multiplexer coupled to the first gates.

Example A20 may include the subject matter of Example A19, and mayfurther specify that the multiplexer is a first multiplexer, and thequantum dot device further includes a multiplexer coupled to the secondgates.

Example A21 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-20, andmay further specify that the first gates have a pitch between 40nanometers and 100 nanometers.

Example A22 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-21, andmay further specify that the second gates have a pitch that is differentfrom a pitch of the first gates.

Example A23 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-21, andmay further specify that a pair of nearest neighbor second gates has apitch between 60 nanometers and 100 nanometers.

Example A24 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-23, andmay further include a plurality of parallel first gate lines extendingaway from the plurality of first gates.

Example A25 may include the subject matter of Example A24, and mayfurther include a plurality of parallel second gate lines extending awayfrom the plurality of second gates in a direction perpendicular to thefirst gate lines.

Example A26 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-25, andmay further include a plurality of magnets disposed above the pluralityof second gates.

Example A27 may include the subject matter of any of Examples A1-26, andmay further specify that the first gates are barrier gates and thesecond gates are quantum dot gates.

Example B1 is a method of performing a Pauli gate operation with thequantum dot device of Example A27, including: applying voltages to thebarrier gates and the quantum dot gates to form a quantum dot in thequantum well stack under a first quantum dot gate; and applying amicrowave pulse to multiple quantum dot gates arranged in anelectrically continuous row, wherein the multiple quantum dot gatesinclude the first quantum dot gate, and wherein the microwave pulse istuned to a frequency of a magnet disposed above the first quantum dotgate to perform a Pauli gate operation on the quantum dot.

Example B2 may include the subject matter of Example B1, and may furtherspecify that voltages on the barrier gates are held constant while themicrowave pulse is applied to the multiple quantum dot gates.

Example B3 may include the subject matter of any of Examples B1-2, andmay further specify that voltages on other quantum dot gates are heldconstant while the microwave pulse is applied to the multiple quantumdot gates.

Example B4 may include the subject matter of any of Examples B1-3, andmay further specify that the quantum dot is an electron spin quantumdot.

Example C1 is a method of performing an exchange gate operation with thequantum dot device of Example A27, including: applying voltages to thebarrier gates and the quantum dot gates to form a first quantum dot inthe quantum well stack under a first quantum dot gate and to form asecond quantum dot in the quantum well stack under a second quantum dotgate, wherein the first quantum dot gate is included in a firstplurality of quantum dot gates that are arranged in an electricallycontinuous row, the second quantum dot gate is included in a secondplurality of quantum dot gates that are arranged in an electricallycontinuous row, and a first barrier gate is disposed between the firstquantum dot gate and the second quantum dot gate; providing off voltagesto the plurality of barrier gates; applying a first set of mutuallytuning voltages to the first plurality of quantum dot gates and to firstadditional pluralities of quantum dot gates arranged in additionalelectrically continuous rows to one side of the first plurality ofquantum dot gate in a first direction; applying a second set of mutuallytuning voltages to the second plurality of quantum dot gate and tosecond additional pluralities of quantum dot gates arranged inadditional electrically continuous rows to one side of the secondplurality of quantum dot gates in a second direction opposite to thefirst direction, wherein the first plurality of quantum dot gates andthe second plurality of quantum dot gates are detuned; and lowering theenergy barrier on the first barrier gate relative to the other barriergates to allow the first and second quantum dots to interact.

Example C2 may include the subject matter of Example C1, and may furtherspecify that lowering the energy barrier includes increasing the voltageon the first barrier gate.

Example D1 is a method of manufacturing a quantum dot device, including:providing a plurality of first gate metal rows above a quantum wellstack, wherein individual ones of the plurality of first gate metal rowsare oriented in a first direction; providing an insulating materialabove the plurality of first gate metal rows; and providing a pluralityof second gate metal rows above the insulating material, whereinindividual ones of the plurality of second gate metal rows are orientedin a second direction perpendicular to the first direction, and thesecond gate metal extends down between at least some adjacent pairs offirst gate metal rows.

Example D2 may include the subject matter of Example D1, and may furtherspecify that the plurality of first gate metal rows are provided on alayer of gate dielectric on the quantum well stack.

Example D3 may include the subject matter of Example D2, and may furtherspecify that the second gate metal extends down between at least someadjacent pairs of first gate metal rows to contact the gate dielectric.

Example D4 may include the subject matter of any of Examples D1-3, andmay further specify that providing the plurality of first gate metalrows includes patterning the first gate metal rows by pitch halving.

Example D5 may include the subject matter of any of Examples D1-4, andmay further specify that providing the plurality of second gate metalrows includes patterning the second gate metal rows by pitch halving.

Example D6 may include the subject matter of any of Examples D1-5, andmay further specify that the insulating material includes a hardmask.

Example D7 may include the subject matter of any of Examples D1-6, andmay further specify that the insulating material includes an interlayerdielectric.

Example D8 may include the subject matter of any of Examples D1-7, andmay further include providing spacer material on side faces of the firstgate metal rows.

Example D9 may include the subject matter of any of Examples D1-8, andmay further include providing spacer material on side faces of thesecond gate metal rows.

Example E1 is a quantum computing device, including: a quantumprocessing device, wherein the quantum processing device includes thequantum dot device of any of Examples A1-27; a non-quantum processingdevice, coupled to the quantum processing device, to control electricalsignals applied to the first and second gates; and a memory device tostore data generated during operation of the quantum processing device.

Example E2 may include the subject matter of Example E1, and may furtherinclude a cooling apparatus to maintain the temperature of the quantumprocessing device below 5 degrees Kelvin.

Example E3 may include the subject matter of Example E2, and may furtherspecify that the cooling apparatus includes a dilution refrigerator.

Example E4 may include the subject matter of Example E2, and may furtherspecify that the cooling apparatus includes a liquid heliumrefrigerator.

Example E5 may include the subject matter of any of Examples E1-4, andmay further specify that the memory device is to store instructions fora quantum computing algorithm to be executed by the quantum processingdevice.

1. A quantum dot device, comprising: a quantum well stack; a pluralityof first gates above the quantum well stack; and a plurality of secondgates above the quantum well stack; wherein a first gate is between eachnearest neighbor pair of second gates.
 2. The quantum dot device ofclaim 1, wherein an individual first gate includes a first gate metalthat extends between multiple nearest neighbor pairs of the secondgates.
 3. The quantum dot device of claim 1, wherein an insulatingmaterial is disposed between a first one of the first gates and a secondone of the first gates adjacent to the first one of the first gates. 4.The quantum dot device of claim 3, wherein at least one second gate isdisposed between the first one of the first gates and a third one of thefirst gates adjacent to the first one of the first gates such that thefirst one of the first gates is between the second one of the firstgates and the third one of the first gates.
 5. The quantum dot device ofclaim 1, further comprising: a hardmask above gate metal of the firstgates.
 6. The quantum dot device of claim 1, further comprising:multiple hardmasks above gate metal of the first gates.
 7. The quantumdot device of claim 1, further comprising: insulating material betweengate metal of the first gates and gate metal of the second gates suchthat the gate metal of the first gates is between the insulatingmaterial and the quantum well stack.
 8. The quantum dot device of claim1, further comprising: spacer material between gate metal of the firstgates and gate metal of the second gates.
 9. The quantum dot device ofclaim 1, further comprising: second gate metal stubs alternatinglyarranged with the second gates.
 10. The quantum dot device of claim 1,further comprising: spacer material disposed above gate metal of thesecond gates.
 11. The quantum dot device of claim 1, further comprising:a gate dielectric between gate metal of the first gates and the quantumwell stack.
 12. The quantum dot device of claim 11, wherein the gatedielectric continuously extends between gate metal of the second gatesand the quantum well stack.
 13. The quantum dot device of claim 1,further comprising: a multiplexer coupled to the first gates.
 14. Thequantum dot device of claim 1, wherein the first gates have a pitchbetween 40 nanometers and nanometers.
 15. The quantum dot device ofclaim 1, further comprising: a plurality of parallel first gate linesextending away from the plurality of first gates.
 16. The quantum dotdevice of claim 15, further comprising: a plurality of parallel secondgate lines extending away from the plurality of second gates in adirection perpendicular to the first gate lines.
 17. The quantum dotdevice of claim 1, further comprising: a plurality of magnets disposedabove the plurality of second gates. 18-22. (canceled)
 23. A quantumcomputing device, comprising: a quantum processing device, wherein thequantum processing device includes a quantum dot device, wherein thequantum dot device includes a quantum well stack, a plurality of firstgates above the quantum well stack, and a plurality of second gatesabove the quantum well stack; a non-quantum processing device, coupledto the quantum processing device, to control electrical signals appliedto the first and second gates; and a memory device to store datagenerated during operation of the quantum processing device; wherein theplurality of first gates are arranged in electrically continuous rowsextending in a first direction and the plurality of second gates arearranged in electrically continuous rows extending in a second directionperpendicular to the first direction, or wherein the plurality of secondgates are arranged as points in a grid, and diagonal subsets of theplurality of second gates with respect to the grid are electricallycontinuous.
 24. The quantum computing device of claim 23, furthercomprising: a cooling apparatus to maintain a temperature of the quantumprocessing device below 5 degrees Kelvin.
 25. The quantum computingdevice of claim 23, wherein the memory device is to store instructionsfor a quantum computing algorithm to be executed by the quantumprocessing device.